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J^BORT IMQUlK'V: 



^'•ATURE OF LANGUAGE, 



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SANSKRIT PHI^"^'"^'-'* '-\< '-' 



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GRAVKS*C. HAUGHfON, 



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' ' -iM ' I' -' ■ AT L!I<(TAI\ AXn fRELA/fO- 



L O N D O N : • • 

]{ I >: T V. D r O R P R I V*A T E C I II C i; 1. A T 1 () N, 








Class Vl^^ 



Book . H4 



DOBELL COLLECTION 






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Al^lIii'X. 



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SHORT INQUIRY 



INTO THE 



NATURE OF LANGUAGE, 



WITH A VIEW TO 



ASCERTAIN THE ORIGINAL MEANINGS 



SANSKRIT PREPOSITIONS; 



ELUCIDATED BY 



COMPARISONS WITH THE GREEK AND LATIN. 



BY 

GRAVES C. HAUGHTON, 

HON. M.A. OXON., F.R.S., &c. 

LATE PROFESSOR OF HINDU LITERATURE AND THE HISTORY OF ASIA IN THE EAST-INDIA COLLEGE ; 
AND SECRETARY TO THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 



LONDON: 
PRINTED FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION. 



M.DCCC.XXXII. 



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205449 
'13 



L O N D X : 

PRINTED BY J L. COX AND SON, GREAT QUEEN STUEKT, 

Lincoln's-Imi-Fields. 



PREFACE. 



The manner in which the writer of the following remarks had treated 
the subject of Prepositions in his Bengdli Grammar, having met the 
simultaneous approbation of such distinguished Oriental Scholars as 
Shakespear, Chezy, Schlegel, and Bopp, he was induced, with 
a view to the Election pending at Oxford for a Sanskrit Professor, to 
reprint them with some short remarks on the nature of Nouns, Verbs, 
and Prepositions in general. He now submits them to a few of his 
private friends, with a view to a further discussion of the subject ; and 
with the request that they will favour him with any observations that 
may suggest themselves on their perusal. The writer conceives that the 
truth can only be ascertained by a consideration of the mutual depen- 
dance of the Noun, Verb, and Preposition, and he therefore entreats, 
that no conclusion may be drawn as to any part, before the whole of this 
very short treatise has been perused. 



SHORT INQUIRY 



INTO THE 



NATURE OF LANGUAGE. 



INTRODUCTION. 

In every inquiry which we make into the nature of language, we are bound to 
ascertain its relation to the other phenomena of nature, and to consider it as some- 
thing more than a detached and subservient instrument of thought. When we 
examine it with care, it seems almost as mysterious as every thing which surrounds 
us. We are apt to think that those things with which we are familiarised from 
childhood possess nothing either profound or perplexing. When, however, we 
inquire into the remote principles of language, we find that it shares in the mystery 
and obscurity in which all the phenomena of nature are involved. 

When language began to be employed by man, he was not yet aware of the 
relation in which he stood to the rest of nature ; nor did he know that he was 
himself formed and directed by laws that rendered him subservient to the circum- 
stances by which he was surrounded, and to which his ovm nature bore a close 
analogy. But when we investigate language, and rise from effects to causes, we are 
compelled to feel that man was merely a passive instrument, if not in its forma- 
tion, at least in its improvement; and we acquire the conviction that we must 
thoroughly comprehend the nature of this first offspring of the human mind, before 
we can hope to arrive at any legitimate conclusion as to the laws that regulate the 
phenomena of mind itself. But if language has its basis in the principles of nature, 

A 2 



INTKODUCTION. 



we must not forget that its perfection is the result of Progression, which is 
likevAdse the foundation of all improvement. 

Man in the infancy of society, himself a mere infant in thought, was impelled 
by the pressure of his wants to the formation of a medium by which he might 
communicate with his own kind. The puppet of Nature, he was led by her to 
the formation of an instrument that has enabled him, by affixing names to his 
ideas, to turn general sentiments, which alone he could otherwise have felt, into 
individual thoughts. His mind being a sort of mirror that reflected every thing he 
felt and saw, he was driven by the principles implanted in his nature to the use of 
articulate sounds, with which as with colours he painted his own perceptions. 

That language adapted itself in its infancy merely to represent the physical phe- 
nomena of nature, will be evident by an analysis of its parts. All things material 
were designated by the Noun, while the motions of these objects were indi- 
cated by the Verb in its simplest form. Such was the first step in language. The 
next was to invent words that should limit and define the points to which the 
motion implied by the verb tended, and thence resulted the Preposition ; and 
it vdll be found that every subject may be conveyed intelligibly, though with some 
tautology, by these three parts of speech, and they consequently constitute the foun- 
dation of language. To express the physical qualities of the noun, it was only 
necessary to join to it some other noun which possessed in .a prominent degree the 
quality which it was wished to attribute to it. Thus to express the different colours, 
such as green, red, white, &c. the names for grasa, rose, snow, &c. or some other 
objects with the same qualities, were employed ; so also the name for a lion, a fox, 
an ass, 8cc. served to designate the qualities of courage, cunning, stupidity, &c. ; 
and these became the first Adjectives.* The Adverb was employed instead of a 



* It was owing to his having considered the abstract nature of qualities, that Adam 
Smith was led into the error of supposing that adjectives must have cost a great effort 
to the human mind in their invention. The nature of qualities is of very difficult con- 
ception ; but their designation by an adjective, it will be seen, was very easy. 



INTRODUCTION. 5 

whole phrase to complete some accessory idea of the verb, such as the nature, 
manner, quality, or intensity of its motion or action. From this it is evident that 
the adjective defined the noun in the same way as the adverb did the verb. The 
junction of one thing with another was intimated by the Conjunction. The Pro- 
nouns for / and thou must have been of the earliest invention in language, as they 
represented the speaker and the person spoken to, perhaps even before either had 
a name. The Interjection was employed to rouse the attention of another, or to 
mark the excitement felt by the person employing it. The Article (derived from 
the demonstrative pronoun) was the last improvement of speech, and is only found 
in those languages which have advanced to their utmost perfection of form. 

But if we are anxious to push our enquiries to the utmost limits of human 
investigation, we shall find a reason for the uniform and universal laws that govern 
the philosophy of language in every varied condition and peculiarity of the human 
race. It must be evident that speech was either conferred upon man at his crea- 
tion, or arose imperceptibly as it was required by his wants. If the first, we must 
suppose it was at once perfectly adapted to nature and to the social and intel- 
lectual relations in which he was to stand to his fellow man. But if it arose 
gradually, it was called into existence by the exigencies of his situation and the 
circumstances by which he was surrounded ; and in either case it must be con- 
sidered as the reflex of his sensations and perceptions, and consequently will be 
in exact relation to the general laws of nature. It is on this account that the Noun 
and Verb had each its archetype in matter and motion j and the Preposition 
that marked local relation, and the Termination or Auxiliary that denoted the tenses 
of the verb, had each its original in space and time long anterior to the appearance 
of man on the earth. Language is thus forced to adapt itself to an abstract model 
that eludes all investigation. Space and Time being the mere concomitants of matter 
and motion, and having therefore a relative and not an absolute existence, language 
will be often found to notice them only by implication ;* and this might be adduced 

* It may be seen that language often only notices them by implication ; for when we 



b INTRODUCTION. 

as a further proof of the dependence of language on those remote principles of nature 
which influence man without his being conscious of their agency. 

It is owing to this plastic influence exerted over language and its own imitative ten- 
dency, as well as to the analogies to which the mind has recourse in all its deficiencies, 
that words which were originally participles or adjectives are employed perma- 
nently as nouns ; and that nouns themselves acquire the force and nature of verbs 
or prepositions, and are classed, unconsciously by the mind, with those parts of 
speech to which they have, by a new use, acquired an affinity. And in the same 
way that such new words become either nouns, verbs, &c. so did the first primitive 
sounds conform to that abstract model which existed before either words or man, and 
which language adapted itself to delineate, and has, as it were, reproduced or 
reflected with considerable accuracy and fidelity. Hence, whatever may be the 
etymological sense of Nouns, Verbs, and Prepositions, they must ultimately repre- 
sent the various modifications of Matter and Motion, Time and Space : for language 
would be a mere jumble of sounds, barely sufficient to indicate the more pressing 
wants and sentiments of our nature, if it had not had some guiding principles to 
which it originally conformed. 

In consequence of the connection of the elementary principles of nature, and 
to which language unconsciously conforms, every investigation respecting the 
Noun, Verb, and Preposition* must be conducted with a due consideration of their 

say he walked to town, both space and time are implied ; and wben we say the bird 
flew over the Jield, though space is expressed by the preposition over, stilJ the verb to 
fly implies both space and time; for all motion ma%\. he through space and in time. 
But independently of the different tenses which specifically mark time, and the prepo- 
sitions which designate the different relations of space, language necessarily compre- 
hends one or other of these two categories in every primitive word. 

* Though the Preposition only marks local relation, it can in no way be omitted in 
an investigation into the basis of language, as the motions of all things in nature have 
their limits, which are alone defined by this part of speech ; and it is as necessary to the 



INTHODUCTION. 7 

mutual dependance. To consider any one of them without reference to the other 
two must lead to a partial, limited, and unsatisfactory result. These three parts of 
speech, therefore, being the mutual complements of one another, the truth can be 
alone elicited by considering them together. If it is conceded that Prepositions origi- 
nally implied local relations, and the position seems hardly possible to be denied, 
Verbs must then be allowed to denote the different kinds of physical motion produced 
by the objects represented by Nouns. Hence there is an indissoluble connection 
existing between Nouns, Verbs, and Prepositions. 

Such is the nature of the first or primitive state of language ; but it deposes this 
physical character as soon as it is employed to represent those abstract relations, 
which, in propoiiion to the extent and accuracy with which they are comprehended 
by any individual, raise him, in the scale of reason, almost as much above the rest of 
mankind, as man is elevated above the brute. 

Verb as those terminations or auxiliaries which mark time past, present, or future' 
It is on this account that it is almost invariably found compounded with it, as in Sanskrit, 
Greek, and Latin, or put immediately after it, as in English. 



( 8 ) 



OF THE NOUN. 

Nouns may be divided into two classes, that is to say into concrete and ahstract. 

Concrete Nouns are the names of such things as are perceived by the organs of 
sense, such as a house, a man, a tree, &c. As a further example, by the ear we 
perceive a sound, by the eye a star, by the nose a scent, by the palate a taste, 
and by the skin or touch the air ; not one of which could we have discovered by 
any other organ than that which makes them respectively known to us. Concrete 
Nouns, therefore, are the names of sensible objects. 

Abstract Nouns are the names of mental perceptions, whether they relate to ac- 
tions, acts, results, states, modes, relations, powers, qualities, quantities, numbers, 
degrees, forms, colours, feelings, or passions.* It will be evident that language to 
be definite, and therefore perfect, ought to have a precise and distinct termi- 
nation for each class of abstract words. Such a provision is of wonderful aid 
to abstract speculation, and relieves the mind from much unnecessary labour, as it 
places the conceptions of the writer in the exact light in which they are intended by 
him. Any one who will take the trouble of analysing the variety of senses in 
which the word vision is employed in the English language, or still more paiticu- 
larly the word motion, will see that the sense in which these words may be employed 
by a writer or speaker, can alone be discovered by a painful application of thought. 
In the same way the French have only one word for conscience and consciousness, 
which must often be the cause of obscurity. The Sanskrit and Latin are both 
particularly rich in such forms ; but some confusion is observable in both these 
languages (though less in the former than in the latter) owing to the terminations 
having been improperly added by careless or illogical thinkers. For this, however, 

* Examples : The action oP striking, running, &c. produces the acts called a stroke, 
a run, &c. ; so the action of bearing produces the result called a birth. The 
STATE of sleeping results in sleep, and di/ing in death. 



OF THE NOUN. 9 

every allowance is necessary, as mental perceptions do so closely approximate to one 
another, that it is frequently very difficult to discriminate to which class they properly 
belong ; and indeed, in some instances, the same idea may be referred to more than 
one class, and some of the classes likewise would admit of subdivision, 

A complete classification of the distinct perceptions of the mind has not yet been 
made, and is a great desideratum towards a perfect analysis of thought. Were a 
philosophic language ever to be invented this enquiry would be a preliminary step 
of indispensable necessity ; as well as that of ascertaining the distinct local relations 
for which prepositions are used, and by limiting each to one definite sense, thereby 
preventing all chance of confusion and misconception.^ 

The noun of itself, without some verb being expressed or understood, cannot form 
a rational expression ; it is on this account that though the noun may seem the most 
obvious part of speech, yet still its precise meaning can be understood only by a 
reference to a verb ; it being by means of this part of speech that all the operations 
of indicating, comparing, and reasoning are performed and determined. Hence 
there is an obvious necessity for bearing in mind the reciprocal influence of Noun 
and Verb, and also, as has been already shewn, of the Preposition, in every investi- 
gation into the nature of any one of these three fundamental parts of speech. 

* A systematic classification, such as is here contemplated, would be of great value 
in forming the mind for metaphysical inquiries. An analysis of any process of reason- 
ing, carried on with a reference to its distinctions, would afford the student a safe clue in 
many of the intricacies of thought in which he is often bewildered ; and would give a 
clearness, and a consequent conviction of abstract truth, which the mind in vain seeks for 
when left to its own intuitive powers. Such an artificial aid would lead to the instant de- 
tection of sophistry in abstract speculations; for without a clear conception of the distinct 
differences of abstract words there can be no certainty in our conclusions. Tlie employ- 
ment of such a system of analysis would be an excellent conclusion to ordinary grammar, 
and might be termed abstract or transcendental grammar. In matters of feeling and 
opinion men cannot of course be expected to agree; but abstract questions, if the 
terms were properly defined, ought to be as capable of proof as the things from which 
they are abstracted. 

B 



( 10 ) 



OF THE VERB. 

The following sketch of the verb in its different voices or states has been writ- 
ten in a concise way, to explain its real nature to the enquiring student.* 

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 

In the infancy of language the verb merely denoted the modes of motion pecu- 
liar to the simplest objects of nature, as to fly, to run, to strike, &c., but in 
process of time, as language became perfect, the verb adapted itself to the ex- 
pression of eveiy want of the human mind, and in this state it is considered 
as denoting action, being, or suffering. But it is solely by a metaphorical use 
that language is fitted for describing abstract ideas, and for this purpose the verb 
divests itself of its essential attribute, which is motion in a physical sense. 

In all inquiries into language, the origin and formation of the verb has ever 
been deemed a subject of the highest interest. Either the first primitive language 
consisted simply of Substantives, which were insensibly moulded into Verbs and 
Prepositions, or the whole three sprang almost simultaneously into existence ; but 
whether they are words originally and specifically invented to mark motion, or have 
been adapted by degrees to this end, they at last acquire the same nature as if they 
had been specially formed for the purpose. 



DEFINITIONS. 



W^hen any sort of motion is expressed to be going on independent of the will 
of the agent, as, the wood burns, the verb is termed neuter ; but the neuter 

* These observations on Verbs and Prepositions are extracted from the Author's 
Bengali Grammar. 



OF THE VERB. 11 

state is in the agent, and not in the verb, vi^hich only conforms to the state of the 
noun. 

If a verb denotes any particular kind of motion depending, or conceived to 
depend on the will of the agent, it is Active but intransitive ; that is, it implies 
voluntary motion, which is commonly called Action, as, he runs, &c. ; and 
when the motion passes on to an object on which it reposes, it is Active and 
Transitive, as, he strikes the child. 

Again, where motion is communicated from one agent to another, the verb 
expressive of the motion is termed Causal ; as he caused the horse to gallop ; 
but the Cause exists in the first agent ; the second is the Instrument ; and the 
action of the verb remains unaltered in nature, but is marked in all languages 
by some modification in the sound of the word, as ^T^'3 (karite^ to make, 
<P<^ I'^^CsS {karaite), to cause to make, in Bengali ; or, as in our own language, 
by compounding a verb implying agency with any infinitive expressive of the 
particular motion to be produced. 

When an object is affected by any action in which it has no agency, and is put 
in the nominative case, the Verb expressive of the action is termed Passive ; but 
the passion or suffering is in the object, and not in the Verb ; and in some lan- 
guages this peculiar use of the Verb is simply marked by a modification of the 
Verb itself, as amo, I love, amor, I am loved, in Latin ; and Jui (katala), he slew, 
and J:LJj (kutild), he was slain, in Arabic. 

In our own, and in most derivative languages, the passive sense is conveyed by 
an attributive expressive of past time, i. e. by a passive participle, and the affir- 
mation of the different times is expressed by an auxiliary verb. 

The verb is termed Impersonal when it denotes any particular mode of motion 
resulting from the spontaneous operations of nature, as it rains ; or from the 
fitness of things, as it behoves me to go. Hence Nature and Necessity are 
the real nominatives to such verbs. 

It thus appears that the Verb, whether we term it Neuter, Intransitive, Transi- 
tive, Causal, Passive, or Impersonal, was equally simple in its origin ; and that it is 

B 2 



12 OF TflE VERB. 

essentially the same in whatever voice it is used. The particular action, state, or 
passion it is supposed to imply, exists only in the agent or object, and not in itself. 
Still in almost all languages the sound of the verb is found modified to mark the 
voice in which it is used, though it is occasionally to be met with unaltered in 
sound, whether employed in a transitive, intransitive, or neuter sense. Our own 
words to bear, to burn, to feel, &c. shew that this may be done without any mis- 
conception. 

From the foregoing remarks on the nature of the verb, it results, that Motion is 
its essential attribute ; and that those who hold it to be a mere connective, have 
not, perhaps, sufficiently considered its origin ; and have been led to observe its 
apparent use, which is often metaphorical, rather than its essential quality, 
which indicates different kinds of motion. But even when it is considered as a 
mere connective, it would be more correct to call it an affirmative. 

It would seem that the real cause why the nature of the verb has been so much 
controverted, has simply arisen from the very partial and unconnected view which 
has been taken of it in eveiy research into language. It is only by considering it 
with reference to the Noun and the Preposition, which are its natural complements, 
that we can arrive at any just ideas upon the subject. But viewed in connection 
with these, its real nature becomes obvious. (See Remarks on the Prepositions.) 

After use had fixed the first forms of the verb, the rest were easily brought into 
existence by that love of analogy which is inseparably connected with the nature of 
the human mind. In our own language we can by convention form any number of 
verbs from nouns or adjectives. Thus we have made to shoe, to salt, to better, to 
blacken, &c., a peculiarity that tends to a singular conciseness and precision of 
expression ; and leads us to regret that a language so copious and simple, has been 
adulterated by the admission of words from the French, the Latin, and the Greek. 
Our language is still rich enough to rival, and in some cases to surpass the Ger- 
man in beauty and simplicity, even after the rejection of almost every foreig:n 
word. 

These remarks on the Verb have been hazarded xmder the hope of putting the 



OF VOICES. 13 

matter in a clear and consistent light to the learner ; for the Verb is the very life 
of language ; the Noun is what it describes, and the Preposition, when requisite, 
defines the tendency of its motion or action. Hence these three are the basis of all 
language, and must be employed or understood in almost every proposition ; but 
the other parts of speech may be either expressed by a circumlocution, or even 
altogether rejected. 



OF VOICES. 

As it often becomes a matter of difficulty to ascertain the exact Voice to which a 
verb belongs, the following remarks in addition to what has been just said are added, 
with a view of putting the subject in a clear light.* 

It is to be remarked, that in Sanskrit the fourth conjugation contains the great 
body of the neuter verbs, while at the same time it is that which in its middle voice is 
identical, in form, with the passive. My object is now to shew, that whatever purpose 
is effected by the letter ^ ya, which is the distinctive sign of the passive voice, is 
equally accomplished by the same letter for the fourth conjugation. In all lan- 
guages there is an affinity between passive and neuter verbs, and there are some 
that might be almost indifferently classed under the passive or neuter voice : such 
instances frequently occur in Menu, the elucidation of which has led me to 
treat the subject at length. 

The verb ^T"^ ri jdyate, he is horn, is classed by the Sanskrit grammariahs 
in the fourth conjugation, though, had they ranged it with the passive verbs, it 
would not have been changed in the slightest degree in form. That they have 
not done so shews the correctness of their notions of grammar. Dr. Johnson, in 
his Dictionary of the English Language, states that the verb to he horn is 

* These remarks on the voices of verbs are extracted from the Author's edition of the 
Institutes of Menu, Vol. 1. p. 329. 



14 OF VOICES. 

neuter-passive. The verb is originally passive, for when all its parts are supplied, 
it means to he home hy a mother ; but in its popular and elliptical use, being 
employed without any reference to its agent, as when we say, he was horn last 
year, it becomes truly a neuter verb, for it then merely affirms the first appearance 
of a child in the world. The verb nascor, in Latin, may be contested as belonging 
to the passive by its form, and to the neuter by its use ; for it answers the con- 
ditions of a deponent verb, which requires a passive foim without a passive sig- 
nification. The French derivative of nascor, i. e. naitre, is laid down to be neuter 
in the dictionary of the French Academy. In Hindustani the passive and some 
other verbs are conjugated with \j\s>- jana, to go, and none but neuter ones with 
O^Ji honu, to he ; and in that language to he horn is Oys Ijuj paida hona, and 
therefore neuter. Thus we see that we have the analogy of language for con- 
sidering to he horn as neuter by its use, whatever may be the conclusion we 
come to by a reference to its derivation. 

Perhaps the following reason for the solution of the equivocal nature of some 
neuter verbs may be of service, as affording a clue for determining their classifica- 
tion, and to shew why there is that similarity between the fourth conjugation and 
the passive voice in Sanskrit ; and between all neuter and passive verbs. 

The Subject both in the passive and neuter voice has no will or choice in the 
action implied by the verb : thus, in the sentence he dies, the subject is affected 
by a STATE over which he has no control, and which he would resist if he could ; 
and in that of he is killed, he suffers from an action he cannot avoid. In 
both these instances the subject is exposed to but one result, independent of his 
will ; the having or not having which, constitutes the real distinction in all animal 
sufferings and actions. It is on this account I conceive, that there is such a simila- 
rity between the fourth conjugation and the passive voice, for whether the subject of 
the verb be exposed to a state, or to an action, which he cannot avoid, he must be 
the ohject. If a conjecture might be offered as to the sense of the increment H 
ya, which is the distinctive sign of both the passive and the fourth conj ligation, I 
would say, that it is connected with Hi yd or ^^ i, go, and that it fills the same 



OF VOICES. lb 

office in Sanskrit which is done by the derivative jana, to go, in Hindustani and 
the other dialects. 

To define the distinction in doubtful cases between a neuter and a passive verb, 
we have therefore only to consider whether the subject suffers from a state or an 
action ; that is, whether there is the agency of natural causes, or of an individual, 
in producing the effect implied by the verb. 

But if it be necessary, on the one hand, to distinguish accurately between the 
passive and the neuter, it is equally important to discriminate between the neuter 
and the intransitive verb, in nice and doxibtful cases ; for the neuter verb holds an 
intermediate place between the passive and the intransitive : and here again the 
same test will give us the true definition ; namely, if the action implied by the 
verb depends upon its subject, we may be certain it is not neuter, and that the 
verb is consequently either transitive or intransitive. Had a rule of this kind, 
which would afford a logical arrangement, been kept in view, we should not have 
our grammarians differing about the nature of neuter verbs. That they have 
been much perplexed by making distinctions upon imperfect grounds of judgment, 
may be seen by referring to Mr. Lindley Murray's Enghsh Grammar, on the Verb. 
The presence or absence of volition in the nominative can alone enable us to de- 
termine the nature of the verb, and consequently by that test are we to be guided 
whether the nominative is the agent or the object. Upon this view of the matter I 
have arranged the different verbs as follows : and have given examples, lest any 
doubt should arise as to their classification. 

VOLUNTARY. 

rp, r Intransitive, as He runs, stands, sits. 

Nominative ] Transitive, — He kills, strikes, Sfc. 

THE j Reflective, — He kills, Sfc. (^himself). 

AGENT. (^ Causal, — He causes to kill, strike, Sfc. 



16 OF VOICES, 



INVOLUNTARY. 



_, r Impersonal, as It rains, thunders, snows, Sfc. 

Nominative ) Neuter, — He dies, sleeps, drowns, Sfc. 

THE I Passive, — He is killed, struck, Sfc. 

OBJECT. L Causal Passive, — He is caused to he killed, Sfc. 



Extract from the Sanskrit Grammar of Dr. Francis Bopp. Berlin, 1832. 

PASSIVUM. 

TEMPORA SPECIALA. 

492. Passivum terminationibus personalibus J. imaree/>a(fi (middle voice) utitur, 
quibus in temporibus specialibus syllabam H ya prsefigit; ita ut prorsus cum 
quartse classis Atmantpado conveniat. 

Annot. Cum quarta classis inaximam partem verba neutra comprehendat, quorum 
significatio ad passivi naturam proximo accedit, (e g. I^H mriye, morior, 
^1*^ jdye^ nascor) : Haughtonius* apte hac in re causam quaesivit, cur 
Passivum et quartae classis AtmanSpadum inter se non difFerant. Etiam Passivi 
characteris H ya explicationem maxime probandam ofFert vir doctissimus, 
qui a radice *^ i vel "^ I yd ire ilium descendere putat, cum revera 
in HindostanS, aliisque dialectis Indicis Passivum circumscribatur per verbum 
auxiliare ejusdem significationis et originis, et quidem per ^1*11 jdna (e. 
M 1*1 ydna, itio) in Hindostana et "H I jd in Bengalica lingua. Dicitur e. c. 
Bengalice "^llx 'M I *^ kdrajd'i, i. e. in actionem faciendi eo, pro fio. Con- 
feratur Latina locutio amatum iri et verbum veneo ex ven et eo compositum. 

In Sanscrito ipso legere memini 'i^"l*\'H'MI grahanam yayau, ivit in 
captionem pro captus est. 

* In Manuis editione, Vol. I. p. 329, et Grammaticae Bengalicce p. 68 et 95. 



( 17 ) 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 



The various local relations of objects are denoted by Prepositions ; but though 
all languages do not in every case make use of the same relations, yet there are 
some primary ones that are common to all, as up, down ; in, out, &c. As those 
persons who have not analysed language may find it difficult to attach a definite 
idea to the w^ord relation, it may be rendered more intelligible by saying, it is that 
idea which results from contrasting together two things with reference to their 
mutual position : thus the sky is above the earth ; ahove therefore implies the relation 
between sky and earth ; but by altering our point of view we may say, the earth is 
beneath the sky ; beneath therefore implies the relation between earth and sky. It 
is therefore evident that they were the first abstract words possessed by language. 

The Noun is the name of the thing ; the Verb describes its mode of motion or 
action ; and the relation expressed by the Preposition defines the tendency of that 
motion ; that is, whether it is to, from, by, against, under, over, &c. any given 
object. Hence its primary sense is that of local relation. 

Thus Prepositions were originally employed to define the relative situations of 
the different objects of nature, which were of course, in the infancy of society, 
the first things that required the employment of speech for their description. But 
in proportion as the impressions received through the senses began to be compared 
and comprehended, the operations of the intellect were developed, and man 
became a reasoning being ; and almost imperceptibly, a new application of 
language was required to express the various relations of abstract ideas. And 
though there may seem to be no necessary connection between abstract notions 
and the relations of material things ; yet, as the comprehension of the former gra- 
dually arises out of the consideration of the modes of material existence, so this first 
and simple language, which had resulted from the necessity of describing whatever 



18 OF PREPOSITIONS. 

came within the scope of the senses, was at last employed to denote the abstract 
conceptions of the mind ; because it afforded a natural analogy, and saved the 
trouble of a new, and perhaps impossible, convention. Hence it must be purely 
metaphorical, as often as it is employed in the description of mental perceptions. 

The obvious distinction between language which had been invented to describe 
natural objects, and its figurative application to denote abstract ideas, must never 
be lost sight of in practice. For, when Prepositions are employed for the pur- 
poses for which they were invented, they mark the relations of local position ; as, 
" the bird flew to, above, before, behind, &c. the tree." But when the same 
Prepositions are borrowed to express abstract conceptions ; as, " fancy triumphs 
over reason," or " the mind revolts against oppression," they imply nothing more 
than a mere mental contrast ; and by convention we agree to think that what we 
assimilate in our minds to above and before, &c. is better than what we designate 
by below and behind, &c. though there can be neither up nor down, before nor 
after, in what is purely mental. 

From what has been remarked above, it will be evident that Prepositions were, 
in the origin of language, almost as indispensable as verbs ; for without their aid 
few verbs could convey a definite idea, as the Prepositions alone denote the 
tendency of the action of the verb. Perhaps" they had been more properly termed 
definitives or limitatives than Prepositions. (See the Remarks on the Verb). 

In the foregoing concise view of the nature of Prepositions, it is not pretended 
to give a decided opinion how they have come into their present form and use in the 
Sanskrit language, but merely to say that the closest and most impartial considera- 
tion bestowed on the subject confirms the belief already expressed, that as they 
are the natural complement of the noun and verb, whether they are original words 
or are borrowed, they at last express but one distinct relation, which is in its 
primary use a local one, and implies either up or down, in or out, &c. A refer- 
ence to some words employed in the Bengali, Hindustani, and other dialects 
springing from the Sanskrit, is of great value in elucidating the manner in which 
such words are divested of their original nature, and restricted to a given use. 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 19 

The word "*1^L^ samipa* originally meant, as is clear by its etymology, accom- 
panied hy water, but it is now only used in Bengali for in the vicinity or near. 
So the Bengali part. ^^^"3 ho'ite, being, as a preposition implies from. In Hin- 
dustani (jAi pas, near, is a corruption of the Sanskrit form ^ '^ ^ parswe, in the 
side ; and ^-^ men, iji, seems to be derived from the Sanskrit ^C<!J madhye, in the 
middle. These instances, which we can still trace to the original language, are 
sufficient to shew how words totally different in their nature may come at last to 
imply but one relation ; and to this state they are brought by the very nature of 
the human mind, and those external causes that control and force language into such 
special classes, as Noun, Verb, and Preposition. The strongest reason that could 
be assigned for the primitive nature of Sanskrit Prepositions is the fact of their 
being often the shortest words m the language, and being incapable of decompo- 
sition. It ought not likewise to be forgotten that the inseparable Prepositions, being 
compounded v^dth verbs and nouns, have been preserved by this union from the 
corruptions and changes which would have affected them in a separate state ; and 
this may be one reason why there is less difference between the Prepositions in 
Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit (when they are the same words) than between the other 
words that are found to co-exist in these three cognate languages. That such very 
short words should act as adjectives to nouns, when in composition with them, 
leads to the idea that they are really primitives. 

Prepositions are a very important part of speech ; and particularly in so pure a 
language as the Sanskrit, A little attention to the etymology of the language 
may finally save the learner much time and trouble ; as well as give him a more 
perfect knowledge of its structure than he could acquire from merely learning the 
words by rote. And in those instances where the words cannot be resolved by any 
general rules of etymology, we must bear in mind that many must be founded 
upon allusions which are lost in the remoteness of antiquity. It should not b'e for- 
gotten, likewise, that words of more modem composition are generally less pure than 

* Dr. Wilkins' Gram. Rule 1177. 
c 2 




20 OF PREPOSITIONS. 

the more ancient ones, owing to the compounds being formed without a reference to 
the distinction between the physical and the figurative senses of the elementary words. 
It is owing to this defect, which comes on with the growth of language, that Greek 
words compounded with a preposition admit of such unsatisfactory analysis. In- 
deed though the Greek language has retained many of the peculiarities of the 
Sanskrit, particularly in the forms of the verbs, yet in its words it is so much cor- 
nipted, that we must be convinced that it was introduced amongst a people whose 
organs of utterance were as unfitted for correctly imitating the original sounds, as 
those of our Saxon ancestors were for pronouncing the Norman French. 

In conclusion it remains only to say that in the foregoing view of the Noun, the 
Verb, and the Preposition, the truth has been elicited by a reference to their 
mutual dependence on one another ; and whoever considers the subject in the same 
connected point of view must come to the same result. As a general rule, when- 
ever any verb implies a physical motion, such as to fly, to run, to leap, &c. the 
preposition employed will be found to express a local relation, as to fly up, to fly 
down, &c. and that such simple senses of the prepositions must be their primary 
significations is as clear as that the figurative meanings are those that are borrowed 
from them. To find, therefore, the original sense of a Preposition or Verb, we have 
only to consider whether it is employed in a physical or a figurative sense. 

OF INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS. 

In assigning the meanings of the following Prepositions, the primary, that is the 
local relation which they convey is printed in capitals ; while those senses which 
arise from the primary idea by implication, or by a figurative use, are printed in 
italics. But it must not be thence concluded that they have really so many various 
significations. The multitude of nicely discriminative Prepositions in our own lan- 
guage, is the cause why we almost invariably reserve each of them to define but one 
relation of things ;' though what denotes before would equally well imply first, or 
against, and so on for the others. But even among our own Prepositions, though 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 21 

we could (as far as regards meaning), most accurately substitute other particles 
that should convey every signification of hy, as well as its primary sense of 
NEAR, yet custom has determined that we must use it, instead of any other, in 
veiy many instances ; and this word affords a good example of the way in which 
the following primary and derivative meanings of the Prepositions are to be 
understood. 

If the figurative meaning assigned to one Preposition may seem occasionally to 
encroach upon that laid down for another, it should be remembered, that a word 
must necessarily, when metaphorically employed, be often equally capable of con- 
veying the same idea as one whose primary signification is very different ; for this 
reason the idea of excellence or superiority may be equally well denoted, in figu- 
rative language, by the word hefore, as by above, or beyond. 



^ L 



TO, AT, AS FAK AS. 



* 



This Preposition denotes the relation subsisting between two things which both 
extend to the same point, hence it defines the limit of the action of any verb ; as he 
went to the house: i. e. as far as the house. If prefixed to a root implying going, 
it makes it to mean coming ; and if to a root signifying giving, it makes it imply 
taking; because the root only expresses some kind of motion generally; thus 
what goes to any one, comes to him; and again what is given to any one, is 
implied to be taken. Its use as a prefix to all words but verbs, seems rather 
obscure, except we remember that union implies perfection; thus ^t<Oi ahha, 
splendour, from "sj i hha, shine. It is identified with the Greek a, and the Latin 
ad, in which the d is pleonastic, as in prodesse and prodeo, without the same 



* Agreeably to what has just been said, the primary local relation expressed by 
the Preposition is printed in capitals, and the derivative senses are given in italics. 



22 OF PREPOSITIONS. 

necessity for its insertion, as in these two examples, where its use is to prevent any 
hiatus in sound. 

^2kPl apa, OFF, or away : deriv. inferior, had. 

This Preposition may be considered as the reverse of ^STl a, as it marks the 
relation subsisting between objects which are off or away from one another ; hence 
it denotes disjunction, and the commencement of action. Prefixed to a verb of 
motion it makes it imply separation ; as ^5Pl iT^ apagata, gone away, or off; and 
added to any other kind of root or word, it deteriorates, or reverses the sense ; 
because disjunction implies imperfection; as ^^^Sr\i^^ apahrita, hindered, from 
^ kri, do. "SI^fSTI apacJiaya, loss, from T^ chi, accumulate. It is identified 
in origin with the Greek «7ro, the Latin ah, and the English off. 

A pra. FORE, or before : deriv. prior, exceeding, excellent, very. 

Prefixed to a verb of motion, it will of course seem to imply progressive motion, 
as forth, forward, &c. but the Preposition merely marks the direction of the 
motion implied by the verb. As that which precedes, exceeds, and is generally 
conceived to be hetter than that which follows ; and as that which is before, is 
heyond the thing it is in contrast with, this Preposition serves to mark priority, 
excess, excellence, and intensity. 

It is identified in origin with the Greek tt^o ; the Latin pro and prce ; but pro 
seems to express the primary idea, and prce the derivative senses. And, finally, 
it is the same as the English /or or: fore. 

"^"^y para, opposite: deriv. over, across, contrary, reverse. 

The relation intended by this Preposition expresses the situation of anything 
which is opposite to something else ; as the further bank of a river,* &c. hence it 



* This is the only preposition which admits of analysis ; it is therefore of singular 

value in throwing light upon the history of these primitive words. The preposition 

*^' para implies the relation that exists between two lines that are exactly opposite and 

therefore parallel (^raj' ayMMn) and equal to one another. In Sanskrit the near shore 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 23 

implies, 1 . the position of any thing opposite or over the way ; so H <Tlr^ 
parakrama (over-step^ :* any great exertion ; as strength, prowess, valour, &c. 
and ^4 1*1 paraga (over-going^ : an eclipse ; dust, &c. 2. contrariety ; as 
^T^I^ "par ah (going across) : croohed, croohedly. 3. What is reverse ; as 
^^■pSSPcl paranmuhha, (/ace-reversed) : having the face averted ; and ^T^l^si 
parabhuta, (become reversed) ; overcome. It might equally well denote what is 
parallel, or equal to ; but it is very little used, and almost every instance of its 
occurrence has been exhausted in the foregoing examples. It seems exactly to 
correspond and to have a common origin with the Greek TrcepcB and the Latin par. 
^T< adhi. OVER : deriv. superior in station, quantity, quality, or degree- 
It marks the relative position of something over, or above, another ; and hence 
denotes that the action of the verb passed over, or above some given object ; as 
^<!I^ adhita (gone oi)er), i. e. perused. Prefixed to nouns, it denotes their 
superiority in station, quantity, quality, or degree according to their meaning. 

In ni. IN, or within, on, upon : deriv. entire, perfect, complete, ceasing, 
refraining. 

of a river is termed ^ '*^ vara, but the opposite shore is called ^ '*^ Pd^a^ almost the 
very word we are considering ; the word i^ para too means other, beyond, and has 
given birth to the Greek •ne^a. In Latin we have par, adj. equal, even, corresponding, 
and from thence par, a pair, a match, an equal, and from this has sprung the French 
pair, the English pair and peer : all these senses arise out of the idea of two things 
exactly opposite and therefore equal to one another ; and this Preposition, whether 
employed in Sanskrit or Greek, is so true to its origin, that it always implies a reference 
to two things one of which is meant to be opposite and equal to the other : so a paradox, 
Tra^aSolo? , is an opinion contrary to the usual one. The two banks of a river, called 
vara and pdra, therefore naturally suggested the relation intended to be conveyed by 
the Sanskrit ^*^1, and the Greek 9r«fa. 

* The meaning put between parentheses is that which I derive from the word by Ety- 
mology, but those which immediately follow it are from the Dictionary. 



24 OF PREPOSITIONS. 

This Preposition marks the relation between two things, one of which is con- 
tained by the other ; as 1*1 1 0^ nichita, (^collected in) : full, complete, from To 
chi, accumulate. The idea of wholeness, perfection, and completeness naturally 
arises in considering any object as having all its parts within itself. As what 
remains in, is implied to be in a state of cessation or refraining, this Preposition 
is occasionally employed to express both these qualities ; so ri ^nj nivritta 
{turned in) : ceased, from ^^ vrit, turn ; and |n^<l nivard (refraining from 
a choice) : a virgin, from ^ vri, choose ; because anciently females had the right of 
choosing a husband, hence called ^^ vara, which signifies a choice. It is 
sometimes apparently confounded with Tn^ nir. In origin and meaning it is the 
same as the Greek tv, and the Latin and English in. 

\^^^nir. OUT, or without: deriv. void, or destitute of. T^o nih, In jl^ 
nis, T*i *i^ nish, v^^^nis, are forms of which it is susceptible, according to the 
nature of the first letter of the word to which it is joined. (See the rules for the 
junction of letters at the end of the Author's Bengali Grammar.) 

The relation existing between two things of which one is outside of the other, 
is denoted by this Preposition ; hence it serves, without any ambiguity, to mark 
destitution, or privation ; as Tn^^l^M nirdkriti (without a form) : formless. 
But even its most literal meaning will convey, under another point of view, an 
opposite sense ; as Tn<l 0*1 nirvachana, speaking out, a speaking or narrating, &c.* 
It agrees exactly in sense, but not in origin with the Greek l^, the Latin ex, and 
the English out. 

^ sam. WITH, or beside: deriv. complete, perfect. 

*iX sang, ^*T^ san, ^^ san, ^T^ san, ^^ sam, are forms which it will be 



* Here we have an instance of what has escaped notice, that the form of the word 
to which the preposition is added reacts on the preposition and modifies its meaning : 
in this instance, being added to the verbal noun the sense is reversed : this is one cause 
of the obscurity in which this branch of grammar has been so long involved. 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 25 

found occasionally to assume, according to the letter with which the word to 
which it is prefixed, commences. 

This preposition denotes the relation existing between things which are beside 
one another ; hence it conveys the idea of accompaniment, completeness, and 
perfection. The Greek <rvv, and the Latin cum, con, seem perfectly identified with 
it in origin and signification. 

"^1"^ abhi. before: denv. first, better, against. 

The relation existing between objects, of which one is before or in front of 
the other, is expressed by this preposition; as 5tf%5I>y aM.MuUa (before ,>.e 
face) : present. As what is before may be considered as first and better than other 
things with which it has a relation, this preposition is sometimes employed for that 
purpose; as ^T'^OvSl l\i abhijdta (first, or heii&c-borri) : noble. It seems to be of 
the same origin as the Latin ob. The difference between it and h pra, may be, 
that the latter expresses something before, without relation to distance ; while ^ T^ 
abJii conveys the idea of what is immediately before, or in front. 

^T^ anu. AFTER : deriv. following, imitating, successive. 

When of things one is after the other, the relation existing between them is 
expressed by this preposition ; as "^"Jjl anuga ingoing after) : following. So what 
is done after any thing else, implies imitation ; thus ^3In^T^ anukdra (a doing 
after); imitation, resemblance. It further serves to mark regular succession, as 
^*lr^^ anukrama (step after step) : order, method. 

v^, "^K^tit, or ud. up: deriv. high, elevated, superior. 

This preposition agrees exactly with our up, and marks the relative position of any 
thing that is up or above something else : hence its derivative senses. 

^^ ava. DOWN : deriv. low, contemptible, bad. 

It is the reverse of the preceding Preposition, and marks the relation between things 
one of which is below the other, and added to a verb implies that its action had a 
downward tendency; as ^<1\3T4 avatdra, {passing down) descent, incarnation, from 
^ trt, pass, and ^*H T^ avagata, {gone down to the heart), i. e. comprehended. 
The heart being conceived to be the seat of the understanding among the Eastern na- 



O 



26 OF PREPOSITIONS. 

tions.* It deteriorates or reverses the sense of words to which it is prefixed, by the 
same figurative use as ^i apa, because what is beneath another is considered in- 
ferior when used in a figurative sense ; thus ^^•^T avarasa, a bad taste, fi-om ^^ 
rasa, a taste, and ^SI^^Hs avarudha, dismounted, fi-om ^^ rwA, mount. It 
corresponds in sense but not in origin to the Greek JcoiTot. 

"on upa. NEAB, or by: deriv. similar, inferior, subordinate. 

When two things are near each other, their relative position is marked by 
"^1 upa ; as O H 'Ts? upagata, (gone near) ; approached, from HsS gata, gone. 
What is near another in kind, is similar but inferior ; therefore '3^*1 l*J^ upandma, 
(near or almost a name) : a by-raamc, a nick-name. C5^i<?^ upadharma, (almost, 
or similar to a law, a subordinate law) : a hy-law. There seems to be a perfect 
resemblance between this preposition, in signification and origin, with the Greek vttq 
and the Latin sub, though in the latter language the figurative has usurped the 
place of the primitive sense. 

T^ vi. APART : deriv. peculiar, distinct, different, without. 

This preposition denotes the relation in the state of a thing that is apart, or 
separate from another ; thus T'<1|^\3 vikshipta, {thrown apart) : scattered. 
Hence it figuratively implies peculiarity, or distinctness. It expresses the 
same idea as is common to our own and other languages, when we say any 
thing has a " peculiar form ;" by which we mean that it has a form apart, or 
distinct from something else, and which may be either good or bad by convention!, 
but more commonly the latter. Thus I '^*^^ virupa (peculiar ybrm) : deformed, 
monstrous. As the idea of privation naturally arises from that which expresses sepa- 



* The Sanskrit word manas implies heart and mind, and is thought to be the original 
of the Latin mens and the English mind. If the above analysis, making avagata refer to 
manas, should be contested, it will not shake the original sense assigned to the prepo- 
sition ; for in English to go to the bottom of a thing implies to understand it perfectly ; 
and to understand a thing is to stand under, that is to be at the bottom of it. 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 27 

ration., this Preposition is frequently so employed ; as 1^'^'^ viphala (without 
fruit) : fruitless ; and in this sense it is identified with the Persian ^j bi. It 
seems to agree in sense and origin with the Latin de and di, which are perhaps 
corrupt forms of ve, as found in vecors and vesanus ; but it is perfectly preserved in 
the Latin vidua, which is identical with the word T<l<^i vidhavd, (vi without 
dhava, a husband) : whence also the Saxon pi&pa, from which comes the English 
widow. 

I \^ pari. AROUND : deriv. entirely, thorougJdy. 

This preposition denotes the relation between things one of which is around some, 
thing else ; as ^1^1 ^\3 parikshipta (^thrown around) : surrounded, entrenched. 
Hence it figuratively conveys the idea of any thing entirely done ; because what is done 
all around implies completeness, or finish ; as ^T^/^^ paripurna, entirely, or 
quite full. It seems to agree in every respect with the Greek Tvspi, and the 
Latin per. 

^rc prati. AGAIN, or against : deriv. contrary ; repeated, several, returned, 
reflected ; much. 

It denotes the relation existing between things which by repetition return again 
in a sort of order, and consequently stand against each other. This idea is 
suggested by the winding back and forward of a rivulet,* or of a path, the 
coil of a rope, &c. Hence it marks, 1. contrariety ; as ^Ml^\3 pratikshipta 



* Mankind in the infancy of language must have found the idea of repetition extremely 
difBcuh, and if we bear in mind that the English words two-fold, three-fold ; the 
Latin duplex, triplex, and the Sanskrit dwiguna, triguna (two twists, three twists), 
all convey ideas borrowed from some material objects, we shall be convinced that it is 
to such things that the speaker must have had recourse to suggest this idea to another. 
A folding screen or a fan conveys the idea exactly of a thing which is repeated in 
exact order, but in the infancy of society a winding stream, the folds of the skin, or the 
coil of a rope, would be the most obvious images. 

D 2 



28 OF PREPOSITIONS. 

{thrown against) : rejected ; repelled, resisted. 2. repetition ; as h M*^^ 
pratikrishta {ploughed again): twice ploughed. 3. distribution, as ^1^1 'In 
pratidina, day against {day) : daily. 4. return ; as ^^^'^- pratyuttara 
{answering again): reply. 5. reflection; as ^i^3u?l*lt pratichhdyd (reflected 
shadow) : image, picture. And from repetition arises the idea of intensity ; as 6. 
H^T"^!*-!^ pratisrishta {distinguished again and again): renowned. It is the 
equivalent of the Latin re. 

^1^ ati. BEYOND : deriv. excessive, great, very. 

The relation subsisting between objects, one of which is beyond the other, is 
signified by this preposition ; as ^l^iCni atinau, beyond the boat, "^TM^^On 
atipatana {going beyond) : transgression. Hence it conveys the idea of excess^ 
as ^STFoXTn atiddna, excessive liberality ; and ^r3^T^ ativriddhi, great 
increase, "511 ■3^^ atidura, very distant. It expresses exactly the same relation 
as the Latin trans, and the Greek /^Jtoj .* 

■^in api. UPON. 

This preposition, which is so common in Greek, is so rarely employed, that it 
might have been omitted without inconvenience. It seems to denote the relation of 
any object that is upon another ; as "^IT^n^ apinaddha, {bound upon) : accoutred. 
As a conjunction its use is very common, implying moreover, also, likewise, 
which seems to corroborate the sense here assigned to it. It is of the same origin 
as the Greek Itti . 

^SM. GOOD :-j- deriv. proper, excellent, fit, beautiful, kind, easy, pleasing, 
very, &c. 

* If we bear in mind that the Sanskrit lina {one less), the Latin unus, and the 
English one (pronounced reon) are the equivalents of the Greek /*o'vof , we may be 
inclined to think that the Sanskrit ati and the Greek ^era have some connection more 
than the mere identity of sense ; and that the ^ may in this instance be prosthetic, as 
well as in /wovof . 

+ It must strike the scholar that the meaning of good assigned to this Preposition, 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 29 

This preposition is only employed to enhance the value of nouns and adjectives j 
hence it conveys, according to the nature of the word to which it is prefixed, the idea 

and that of bad to the next, is contrary to the principle laid down that every preposition 
implied local relation : this objection is so obvious that it requires explanation. The 
prepositions, according to the nature of the word with which they were compounded, 
acted either as adverbs or adjectives, and were consequently the earliest words of that 
kind possessed by language. The first adjectives required would be good and bad^ 
and the question immediately occurs which of the prepositions would best imply these 
two ideas. Independently of the general reasoning that might lead us to a just conclu- 
sion, we have the aid afforded by analogy. 

In l^atin props means near, and from it arises the adjective proprius, and thence 
comes likewise the French propre and the English proper^ meaning good, fit, &c. 
From proprius likewise descends proprietas, property. In Sanskrit too the preposition 
^SM seems to have entered into the adjective "^"^l^sM + as, own, and the noun <1 
SU + am, property, hence we see why we have the Latin suus (su + us) his own, 
implying also proper, due, lawful. Now if we were to ask how land would be appor- 
tioned out among a population beginning to feel its value, certainly the law \»''»Mld be that 
each man should take that which was nearest to him, and thence vicinage would be held 
to confer the highest right in the division of the yet unappropriated earth. As an illus- 
tration, let us suppose for a moment men thrown upon an uninhabited island : as long 
as the hope of escape remained, if they had families, they would simply confine them- 
selves to the preparation of some means of shelter from the weather ; but as soon as 
the conviction arose that they must pass their lives where they were, an allotment of the 
land would take place, and each would claim that which was nearest to his own dwelling, 
and which on that account would be considered as his own property. The connec- 
tion of this word with the idea of nearness is thus established, as well as with that of 
property. Its original signification therefore seems to be close, and the difference 
between it and '^\ upa is that the latter mevin's proximity in a general sense, while "^ 
$u implies close contact / an idea supported by the English verb to meet, which gives 



30 OF PREPOSITIONS. 

of 1 . perfection, or goodness : ^^jT^ supatha, an excellent, or good road. 2. 
fitness, or propriety; as ^*XTR> suhhddya (fit, or proper to he eaten): whole- 
some. 3. beauty ; as '*|^'^Tl suranga (beautiful in colour^ : the orange. 4. 
kindness ; as ^^^ suhrit (a kind heart) : a friend. 5. facility ; as ^^^ 
sukara, (easy done) : practicable. 6. pleasingness ; as "^U sukha (pleasing ^Ae 
senses): pleasure. 7. superiority; as ^!^ • suvarna (superior cZass, or colour (to 
silver): gold (Compare '^'^ • silver). 8. intensity; as^^I^ sutikshna, very acute. 

rise to the adjectives meet, proper, right, good, &c. ; and to be fitting, that is, to be 
right, proper, good, &c. and which springs from the idea of things that^i together. The 
sense of good springs naturally from the idea of what belongs to ourselves in relation to the 
individual, the family, or the nation; thus our own opinions, our own family descent and 
customs, our own national qualities, we must from our very nature consider as better than 
those of others ; and so true is language to this leading idea, that we call our property 
our goods (in French nos Mens). This subject may be further illustrated by a reference 
to the Persian : M. Burnouf's researches have demonstrated that the Sanskrit ^ K^"*!^ 
swa-daitas, self-given, self-manifested, (Latin sui datus) is the original of the Zend 
kadata, from this comes the modern Persian \Ss- khuda, which is identical with the 
Saxon and English God. In a similar manner, the Sanskrit ^l"^ sm + as, own, having 
given birth to the Persian iiyi- khii + d, own, self, (the letter J d being the pleonastic 
letter in Persian as in Latin) would lead to the belief that this last word is the original 
of the Saxon gob and English good. 

The truth of the foregoing inquiry is singularly confirmed by a reference to the 
Greek; for the preposition tu good gives birth to the adjective kui good, and the con- 
nection of Eo'f his own with el good, in the same way as "^ su, good, with ^"^ 
iu + as, his own, is thus brought to light perhaps for the first time. The Greek aspirate 
in the above and other instances takes the place of the Latin and Sanskrit s, and is 
therefore quite distinct from the digamma. If there is any truth in this argument, the 
original sense of "^ must be close or near, from which is derived the idea of own^ 
and from own good. 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 



31 



It is exactly the reverse of dur or dv^s^ and agrees in signification and origin 
with the Greek iJ. 

"^^ dur. BAD :* deriv. improper, vile, unfit, difficult, displeasing, paucity, &c. 

^o duh, \^ 1^ dus, '^'^ dush, ^^X^ dm, are forms which it must assume accord- 
ing to the consonant with which the word it is prefixed to may begin. 

As it is exactly the reverse of ^«m, it is employed to depreciate the nouns and 
adjectives to which it is joined ; on this account it denotes 1. vileness, or badness ; 
as 1*^^ duradhwa, a bad roa<?; 2. unfitness ox impropriety; as^'^ ''^ ^ durdldpa 
(improper speech) : abuse. 3. difficulty; a,s\^^^ duschara (difficult to go^ : im- 
practicable. 4. displeasingness; as '^o U duJikha, (displeasing to the senses) : pain. 
5. paucity; as ^^^ durbala {of little strength): weak. 6. inferiority; as '^'^n 
durvarnai^vaS&ciox class, or colour {to gold) (compare ^^^ go W): silver. The Greek 
^vg, and the Latin dis, seem to have a perfect analogy with it, in sense and origin. 

These Prepositions cannot be added at pleasure to a root or word ; but their uses 
must be determined by the custom of the language. Two or three are very often 
prefixed to one root, and, though rarely, even four may be found added, as in 

* Nearly all that has been said regarding ^sm will, in a reversed sense, apply to this 
preposition. Whatever was distant, was considered as bad : in this way, foreign, out- 
landish, strange, &c. are always used by the vulgar with a deteriorating sense, and 
hence I have little doubt that this preposition is connected in origin with the Sanskrit 
^^ d'dra, distant. The English word bad is evidently the same as the Persian JJ bad, 
and if we had any evidence that the Scandinavian nations migrated from the shores of 
the Caspian after the intermixture of the Medes and Persians, I would without hesi- 
tation refer the origin of the Persian Ja bad to some Syriac form connected with the 
Arabic SxJ buad, distance; for we know that the Pahlevi or fiorrfer language was a 
mixture of a Syriac dialect with the old Persic, and this supposition would satisfactorily 
account for the many words apparently of the Semitic stock found in the Teutonic dia- 
lects. The original signification of '^"4.^ dur must therefore be far, from which is 
derived the idea of bad. 



32 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 



the word ^T^T^^^T'^^ surrounded, attended upon, in which there are ^°, '^1^ , 
T^ and "SIl prefixed to the root ^ take. 

Though, strictly speaking, the following words are adverbs, yet as they are very 
frequently used in the same manner as prepositions, they are on this account inserted 
immediately after them. 

'^^^^adhas. down, downwards, below: deriv. low, vile. "^I^o adhah, 
^^■^l^ adhar, ^<! ]^ adhas, "^IC^ adho, are forms which it may occasionally 
assume when in composition. 

^^^, antar, ^v3o antah, ^^^^\ antas, &c. Within, between, among. It 
is the same as the Latin inter. 

O ill^ upari. above or over. 

It is identified in origin and signification with the Greek oVif , the Latin super, 
the Gotliick ufar, and the English over. 

^^■^^ pur as. IN FRONT, before: deriv. prior, first. i^o purah^ i^^K 
puras, *3^ ' pui'o, are forms which it may occasionally assume. It seems identified 
with the Greek ir^og. 

^\<^\vahis, or wahis.* Out, outwards, external. ^T^o vahih, ^<^ vahir, 
^A\ J^ vahis, are fonns which it may occasionally assume. 

* This word seems to be the original of the Latin ex and the Greek l|. The letter 
<s h was anciently very guttural, approaching to the Arabic ^ khe} hence wahis would 
be soon corrupted into wakhs, and then softened into ex and s^- Its occurrence in both 
Greek and Latin is almost decisive as to its being referable to the Sanskrit stock. For 
a similar reason we must refer the Greek aMoj and Latin alius to the Sanskrit "^l'"*!^ 
anyas, other. 



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